Introduction to Grammar and it's Definitions
The first is the idea that a grammar of a language can be viewed as a set of abstract devices, rule systems, and principles that serve to characterize formally various properties of the well-formed sentences of that language. The grammar, in this sense, generates the language. This idea was already established in the study of various artificial languages s within logic and the infant field of computer science; what was novel was Chomsky's claim that natural languages the kind we all learn to speak and understand in early childhood could also be generated by such formal systems. In a sense, when linguists adopted this view, they adopted the idea that t theoretical linguistics is a branch of (applied) mathematics and in in t this respect like contemporary theoretical physics and chemistry (Chierchia&McConnell, 1990,P.1).
Definitions of Grammar
It is totally agreed by most of the world linguists and language specialist that any language has its own grammar which in one way or another entirely different from the grammar of another language. Some grammarians have tried to classify language on the bases of some grammatical features such as inflectional and non-inflectional grammars. On the other hand, it is only partially agreed by most of the linguists and grammarians world-widely, when it comes to defining grammar or deciding what does the term 'grammar' refer to. Nevertheless, even if we consider the common elements and indications from among huge number of definitions of grammar, we will face another problem which is how this grammar should be taught and how it should be analyzed and interpreted? Because of this last point many schools of grammar have appeared, each of which have viewed grammar according to their provided evidences and explanations. To make it clear, the following are a number of the definitions of grammar which will indicate what has been mentioned above:
Grammar is a central term in LINGUISTICS, but one which covers a wide range of phenomena. Several types of grammar can be distinguished... descriptive grammar... theoretical (formal)... comparative... traditional... competence grammar... performance and universal grammar (Crystal, 1997,p .174-5).
A description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language... usually takes into account the meanings and functions these sentences have in the overall system of the language... may or may not include the description of the sounds of a language. (Richards, 1992, p .161).
Grammar commonly denotes a level or component of language subsumed under the general level of form... distinct from meaning and sound, specifically the words, phrases and clauses of which sentences are composed. Grammar itself can be subdivided into SYNTAX... and MORPHOLOGY... (Wales, 2001, p. 179)
Grammar is a protean term, meaning different things to different people... part of philosophy... art of writing... an object of study... usually synonymous with inflection ad syntax...the grammar typically presented in the context of language teaching and learning... description of grammatical rules... grammar books and aproperty of mind tacit knowledge... (Helen & Keith, 1998, pp. 143-5).
Grammar can refer to a variety of phenomena... among grammarians, there is considerable disagreement concerning its nature, discussions of grammar fall within three main areas: social 'what is to be regarded as standard grammar and what is the status and role of other varieties, pedagogical 'how is grammar learnt and how it should it be taught', and linguistic 'what is grammar and how does it work... (Byram, 2004: p. 248)
In modern linguistics 'grammar' has a broader meaning than in the traditional usage 'we use it with a systematic ambiguity. On the one hand, it refers to the explicit theory constructed by the linguist and proposed as a description of the speaker's competence... it means the speaker's knowledge of a language which includes sound, meaning and syntax. (Ambrose-Grillet, 1978, p. 52).
In Oxford International Encyclopedia (2003). grammar is presented in terms of two particular approaches 'functionalism' and 'formalism' or functional [cognitive and social perspectives]and formal grammars.
Types of Grammar
1 . Descriptive Grammar
Descriptive grammar is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of describing the linguistic structures and grammatical rules of a given language as it is actually used, rather than providing rules for the order and use of the language. Descriptive grammar aims to describe linguistic structures and analyze their use based on observation and precise description of the actual linguistic system of the language. Descriptive grammar is also concerned with the study of grammatical variations between different dialects of the same language. Descriptive grammar is a practical use of grammar, aiming to describe and characterize grammatical rules as they are used in everyday life and to understand how language is used in real conversations( Hinkel ,1984,p .5)
1. In English, the article precedes the noun and any adjective modify the noun.
Ex 1: The short people moved.
2. Demonstratives agree in number with the nouns they modify: 'this' and 'that' goes with singular, and 'those' and 'these' go with plurals.
Ex 2: That dog is surprisingly fond in these bones.
Those dog is surprisingly fond of this bone.
3. Use only one question word at the beginning of an English
4.Do not use who in place of whom.
Ex 11:* who did you talk to?
To whom did you talk?5.
5.'Hopefully' should not be used at the beginning of a sentence.
Ex 13: Hopefully Mary will win the race.
In contrast, rules of descriptive grammar have the status of scientific observation, and they are intended as insightful generalizations about the way that speakers use language, rather than about the way that they ought to use it. Descriptive rules are more general and more fundamental than prescriptive rules. A useful way to think about the descriptive rules of a language is that they produce, or generate, all the sentences of a language. The prescriptive rules can be thought of as filtering out some (relatively minute) portion of entire output of the descriptive rules as socially unacceptable (ibid, p.4)
2. prescriptive Grammar
Prescriptive grammar refers to a set of rules and guidelines that dictate what is considered "correct" or "proper" in a language. It focuses on defining the standard usage, spelling, grammar, and syntax of a language. Prescriptive grammar serves as a normative tool for language usage, often found in grammar books, style guides, and language manuals. It aims to provide rules to follow in order to achieve effective and formal communication.
Prescriptive grammar is concerned with establishing language norms and often emphasizes the "correct" usage over language variations or changes. It offers guidelines on topics such as sentence structure, word choice, punctuation, and grammar. The purpose of prescriptive grammar is to maintain language standards, uphold linguistic traditions, and ensure clarity and coherence in written and spoken communication. However, it is important to note that prescriptive grammar can sometimes be influenced by personal or societal biases, and it may not always capture the full range of language variation and creativity . (Huddleston , 1984, p. 40 )
Features of prescriptive grammar by (Valeika and Buikiene 2003: 12)
1.pattering after Latin in classifying words into word classes and establishing grammatical categories to improve English.
2. Emphasis on writing rather than speech.
3.Reliance on meaning and function in definitions.
4. Approach to correctness, the standards of correctness are logic, which was identified with Latin and subjective opinion.
The rules of prescriptive grammar by (Sehlenker 2003: 3)
1. Do not spilt infinitives.
Ex 6: * I wanted to carefully explain to her why the decision is made.
I wanted to explain to her carefully why the decision is made.
2.Do not use double negation.
Ex 7: * I did not do nothing.
I did not do anything.
Ex 8: They haven't done anything.
3. Traditional Grammar
Traditional grammar refers to the study of the structure and rules of a language based on its historical development and conventional usage. It focuses on analyzing and describing the grammatical patterns and conventions that have been established over time within a language community. Traditional grammar aims to provide a systematic understanding of how a language works and how it should be used correctly Traditional grammar encompasses various aspects of language, including morphology (word formation), syntax (sentence structure), and semantics (meaning). It involves the analysis of grammatical categories such as parts of speech, tenses, moods, and cases. Traditional grammar also examines the relationships between words, phrases, and clauses within sentences, as well as the rules governing their usage The study of traditional grammar has been influential in education, language teaching, and linguistic research. It provides a foundation for understanding the structure and functioning of a language, enabling effective communication and the preservation of linguistic heritage. However, traditional grammar may not always account for language variation and change, and it can sometimes be prescriptive in nature . (Richard , 2020 .P 23 )
* Traditional grammar established the eight parts of speech. These parts of speech were established in English and other languages and are still in use in linguistic discourse till date. Moreover, the Subject-Verb, Verb-Object relations as well as Case, Mood and other categories
* Another strength of Traditional grammar is that it is the most widely used model for teaching the English language especially in Africa (Wall work 1969, Lamidi 2000).
4. Generative Grammar
Generative grammar is a concept in linguistics. It is the explanation given by Noam Chomsky to solve the problem of how language is acquired, and, more broadly, how language is structured within our mind/brain. For the theory of generative grammar Chomsky is credited as the father of modern linguistics, because of the incredible value of his findings, which have impressive implications also for psychology (and, more recently, neuroscience), philosophy, and an always growing number of related, as well as less-related, fields.
In simple words the terms ‘generative grammar’ refer to a set of structures, innate in our brain, which help us to address the immense similarities which all the languages of the world share; and at the same time those universal elements constitute also the cognitive device which helps us to acquire whichever language we are exposed to as children.
This ‘universal grammar’ (UG) is composed of a fixed set of ‘principles’ which are really found in every existing language (for example the principle which says that the subject must be always present in every sentence), and a set of ‘parameters’, which are the few variable parts of the languages (in some languages like Italian there is a parameter which allows the speaker to not pronounce the subject, however the subject is still there because of the principle I named, it's just ‘hidden’). The so-called “Principles and Parameters Framework” is capable of explaining why there are so many similarities in the grammars of different languages but at the same time they appear so different on the surface. Thanks to this elements the child is able to acquire the grammar of a language in impressively short times: he just applies the principles he already has, (Francesco, 1983 , p. 7 ).
5. Universal Grammar
In contrast to the taxonomic approach adopted in traditional grammar, Chomsky takes a cognitive approach to the study of grammar. For Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native speakers know about their native language which enables them to speak and understand the language: hence, the study of language is part of the wider study of cognition (i.e. what human beings know). In a fairly obvious sense, any native speaker of a language can be said to know the grammar of his or her native language. For example, any native speaker of English can tell you that the negative counterpart of I like syntax is I don’t like syntax, and not e.g.
I no like syntax: in other words, native speakers know how to combine words together to form expressions (e.g. negative sentences) in their language. Likewise, any native speaker of English can tell you that a sentence like She loves me more than you is ambiguous and has two interpretations which can be paraphrased as ‘She loves me more than she loves you’ and ‘She loves me more than you love me’: in other words, native speakers also know how to interpret (i.e. assign meaning to) expressions in their language. However, it is important to emphasize that this grammatical knowledge of how to form and interpret expressions in your native language is tacit (i.e. subconscious) rather than explicit (i.e. conscious): so, it’s no good asking a native speaker of English a question such as ‘How do you form negative sentences in English?’, since human beings have no conscious awareness of the processes involved in speaking and understanding their native language. To introduce a technical term devised by Chomsky, we can say that native speakers have grammatical competence in their native language (Andrew, 2022-P.7-28. 6-1 ).
- Richards, J. C. (1992). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Longman: Longman University Press.
- Wilson, K. (2016). "Advancements in Genetic Engineering: Ethical Considerations and Implications." Journal of Bioethics, 15(4), 220-235.
- Chierchia, Gennaro, and Sally McConnell-Ginet. "Meaning and grammar: An introduction to semantics." (1990): 273-292.
- Crystal, D. (1997). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (4th ed.). Blackwell: Blackwell Publishing.